For all students of Islam, Richard Fletcher's 175 pages of text are critical reading that dispel the myths wide of a kind, gentle "golden age" of Andalusian Islam.

Many accounts exist from Islamic conquerors and subjugated Christians, but only three important contemporary reports meet scientific tests---a "single but crucial administrative document from the Islamic side," "a small amount of archaeological evidence" and an anonymous Christian, Latin narrative (aka "Chronicle of 754")---give a "more reliable account of events in Spain during the first half of the eighth century than any other surviving narrative sources."

In 711, after early 8th century Arab raids had laid waste to "several provinces," North African governor Musa ibn Nusayr sent Tariq's army to Spain, followed shortly after with his own fully equipped legions.

Tariq's Islamic invaders decisively defeated Roderic of Spain (and murdered him) in 712 at the "Transductine promontories," most likely situated between Algericas and Jerez.

In Toledo, Musa executed prominent nobles, wasted the countryside, also then devastating the Ebro valley and Zargoza, where he inflicted further mass murder. Toledo's Bishop fled. When the Umayyad Caliph recalled Musa to Damascus---with innumerable enslaved Visigoth lords and their gold bullion and jewels---he assigned Spain's governorship to his son Abd al-Aziz, who by 715 conquered provinces throughout the Iberian peninsula.

Other documents corroborate the Toledo Bishop's arrival in Rome, archaeological excavations discovered signs of violent 8th century devastation alongside 711 to 713 coins. Also, Abd al-Aziz' April 5, 713 treaty promised Theodemir lordship over seven southeastern Spanish towns and free Christian practice---in exchange for stiff annual poll taxes (one silver dinar per person) plus wheat, barley, unfermented grape juice, vinegar, honey and oil and promises not to aid the Islamic conquerors' enemies.

As-Samh distributed Visigoth monarchy lands "by lot" to Muslim governors and conquering soldiers from 718 through 720; the Arab minority obtained most fertile lands and North African Berbers got the less fertile central and northern peninsula and southern and eastern mountains. Some 150,000 to 200,000 Arab and Berber warriors migrated to Spain as well.

The Berbers 739 Maghreb revolt precipitated an "endemic civil war" in Andalusia. In 750, the Abbasids (descended from Mohammed's uncle Abbas) defeated the Umayyads---shifting Islam's center east to Baghdad, where the Abbasid Caliphate established its capital in 762. But in 756 Umayyad Abd al-Rahman escaped Abbasid Caliph al-Saffah ("shedder of blood"), crossing to Spain, and establishing a rival Umayyad empire in Cordoba, which ruled Spain until 1031.

It was never a kind and gentle rule or "Islamic golden age," despite frequent claims to the contrary. Apart from 8th Century devastation and waste of Spain, the Umayyads wrecked havoc later too. Emir al-Haken (796-822) established a palace cavalry of 2,000 and standing army of 60,000; crucified 72 people in 805, and leveled Cordoba's southern suburb in 818. The Umayyads divided Spain into three regions--"tugurs" (meaning "front teeth)---ruled by military governors. These remained in virtually constant states of war. Burgos, for example, was laid waste "to its foundations" in 884.

Even reputedly enlightened Abd al-Rahman III (912-961) wielded mighty military power and devastated many areas. A Pyrenean monk at San Juan de la Pena monastery documented the July 26, 920 slaughter in Valdejunquera, southwest of Pamplona. Similarly, al-Nasir's May to July 920 expedition besieged Muez castle on July 25, 920, and "put to the sword" all "combatants," including upwards of 500 "counts and knights" and destroyed many other villages en route back to Cordoba. Poet Ibn Abd Rabbihi described Osma as being left "like a blackened piece of charcoal."

On al-Rahman III's 961 death, he owned 3,750 slaves in his Cordoba palace alone.

After Rahman III's death, al-Hakem II ruled until 976, but Almanzor or Al-Mansur ("the victorious") --- Abu Amir Muhammad ibn Abi Amir al-Ma'afari --- then arose bringing freedman and general Ghalib into his circle. They headed his first campaign, against Leon, in 977.

Overall, Almanzor led 57 campaigns. He sacked Barcelona and the San Cugat del Valles monastery in 985, and plundering of Coimbra (now in Portugal) in 987. In 995, he captured Castile's count, and destroyed Carrion and Astorga. In 997 he attacked Santiago de Compostela, in 999 destroyed Pamplona and in 1002 flattened Roija and the San Millan de la Cogolla monastery.

He raided Catalonia in 1003, Castile in 1004, Leon in 1005, and Aragon in 1006. So evil was Almanzor--- who self-described all wars against Christians as jihad---he was said to be "seized by the Devil."

Yet worse came with the 11th century invasion of Morocco's Almoravids, who traversed the Atlas mountains to conquer Morocco's plain and then Spain---which they ruled from about 1080 until its liberation in 1248 by Fernando. Historian Ibn Khaldun described the Almoravid religious and military fervor as such that "noting can stand in their way...for their outlook is the same and the object they desire is common to all and is one for which they are prepared to die."

In 1148, for example, the Almohads massacred 100,000 Jews in Fez and 120,000 Jews in Marrakesh and wrecked devastation and death in Spain, from Seville to Tortosa.

Thus in 1148, the renowned Jewish philosopher and physician Maimonides fled Almohad persecution in Cordoba with his whole family disguised as Muslims, until finding asylum in Fatimid Egypt. Arabs and Muslims had "persecuted us severely, and passed baneful and discriminatory legislation against us," he later wrote. "Never did a nation molest, degrade, debase, and hate us as much as they."

His 1172 Epistle to the Jews of Yemen Maimonides advised his persecuted Jewish brethren that forced conversions they reported in Yemen duplicated those that Berbers had also forced upon Jews across the Maghreb and Spain. Maimonides referred to Mohammed as "the Madman," despairing that the objective of his "invented ... well known religion," was "procuring rule and submission...."

This book gives the true details of Andalusia, Muslim Spain.

--Alyssa A. Lappen

MOORISH SPAIN is a well-written and well-organized history of the nearly 800 years (711-1492) of political rule of parts of the Iberian peninsula by avowed Muslims. It was originally published in 1992, so it predates 9/11, but on balance I believe that is a plus. There was less reason or temptation to sacrifice broad historical perspective and the several judgments that Fletcher ventures are less likely to be dismissed or criticized as tainted by the more recent politico-religious furors. Probably the central point that Fletcher seeks to make, and substantiate, is that Moorish Spain, for all its artistic and intellectual accomplishments, was not a quasi-utopian oasis of peace and enlightened religious toleration, in stark contrast to Christian Europe of the Crusades and anti-Semitic pogroms. Another noteworthy lesson, at least to my mind, is that the Muslim conquests on the Iberian peninsula were motivated more by political considerations than by religious fervor.

There are a few slow patches (for example, Chapter 3) and several lapses into mind-numbing lists of political succession, but on the whole Fletcher, who obviously is conversant with a considerable number of both secondary and primary sources and clearly knows his stuff very well, does an admirable job of summarizing and synthesizing. I would be surprised to find another brief (less than 200 pages) history of the period and region that is comparable, much less superior.

Fletcher's book is well written and insightful. He writes the history in the sequence it occured with details and background information. He presents an air of the time and circumstances that became history.

Fletcher's book is well written and insightful. He writes the history in the sequence it occured with details and background information. He presents an air of the time and circumstances that became history.

A previous reviewer for Amazon has compared Maria Rosa Menocal's THE ORNAMENT OF THE WORLD unfavorably to Richard Fletcher's MOORISH SPAIN. By contrast, I find them quite complementary. The difference is a matter of style: Menocal's book is philosophical, impressionistic, attempting to penetrate the "essence" of Muslim Spain, which she views as a "toleration of contradictions" and provide a vivid portrait of some of the individuals whom it produced. Fletcher's work is by contrast a conventional narrative history, although certainly a well-written one. One comes away from both books with the same conclusion: that compared with its contemporaries (as well as what was to come in Spain), Al Andalus was remarkable for its religious tolerance, aesthetic sensibility, and scholarly and scientific achievements. Its contribution to Western civilization was so great that we should really speak of our "Judeo-Christian-Islamic heritage" instead of just our "Judeo-Chrisian" one. That Fletcher chooses, in his final chapter, to negate all that he has said in his previous ones by judging Al-Andalus by standards which did not even exist until the Enlightenment is the book's greatest fault, and cost him a star, for surely the rest of the book deserves five.
There are of course other differences between the books. Having read Menocal first, I was under the impression that the Umayyad heir, Abd Al Rahman, crossed over to the Iberian peninsula in 711 and established his caliphate immediately in defiance of the Abbassid one in Baghdad, for in her quest for the essence of the culture, Menocal places little emphasis on the bare facts. But from Fletcher I have learned that the first Muslim to cross over from Africa to Europe was a certain Tariq, who led one of those periodic upsurges of Berber conquest which occurred for reasons well analyzed by Ibn Khaldun (see p. 106) and who gave his name to Gibralter, which comes from the Arabic Jebel al Tariq or the Rock of Tariq. And it seems the Umayyads did not dare to establish their own caliphate until the tenth century. But these are minor details. More important is the puzzle of the contradiction between Menocal's and Fletcher's characterizations of Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny: was he a proponent of the crusades, as Fletcher argues on p. 154, or an opponent of them, as Menocal argues on p. 184 of her book? As he sought out a translation of the Quran before condemning it as did most of his contemporaries, I'm inclined to believe Menocal. But Fletcher comes out ahead in his evaluation of the feuding taifa city-states which succeeded the Cordoban caliphate. With her ahistorical focus on the "essence" of Al Andalus, Menocal views these as merely chips of the broken gem of the Cordoban kingdom, carrying on in some small measure its glory. With the historical sweep of his vision, Fletcher grasps the fact that the collapse of the caliphate left it dangerously vulnerable, first to fundamentalist Berber conquerors and later, more ominously, to the Christian kingdoms to the north. These practiced a policy of "divide and conquer", until there was only one Muslim kingdom left, Granada, which fell to the most ruthlessly intolerant of Christian monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, with catastrophic results for both Jews and Muslims and repercussions which echo down to our own day.